Mushrooms belong to the fungus kingdom. They are macrofungi from the Basidiomycetes or Ascomycetes orders, distinguished by a fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body that can be epigeous or hypogenous[1-2]. They are typically found on surfaces high in organic matter and wetness and may be viewed with the naked eye and plucked by hand. Mushrooms include a wide array of physiologically active chemicals. As a result, they are commonly utilized as both food and medicinal. Many studies have revealed that the nutritional and therapeutic properties were known as early as 1500 BC [3]. Mushroom cultivation initially began in France circa 1600 AD. Abercrombie first provided information about commercial mushrooms in 1779. In 1831, Callow demonstrated that mushrooms could be grown inside under the right conditions.

Mushrooms are divided into four categories based on their qualities and applications. They are

1. Edible mushrooms: This category includes mushrooms with good nutritional value and taste. For example, Pleurotus sp., Agaricus sp., Volvariella sp., Calocybe sp.
2. Therapeutic mushrooms: This category includes mushrooms having nutraceutical or therapeutic qualities. Examples include Ganoderma lucidum, Schizophyllum commune, and Lentinula edodes,among others.
3. Poisonous mushrooms: This category includes mushrooms with poisonous ingredients. Examples include Amanita phalloides, Galerina marginata, and Cortinariusrubellus, among others.
4. Miscellaneous category includes mushrooms with unknown characteristics.

In India, three types of mushrooms are cultivated

1. Agaricus bisporus, or white button mushrooms, make up almost 90% of the entire output.
2. Central and southern India are the primary growing regions for oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus sp.).
3. Tropical mushrooms, also known as Paddy straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), are farmed in limited quantities in South India [4-5].

Volvariella volvacea

Volvariella volvacea,also known as paddy straw mushroom or straw mushroom is an edible mushroom found in tropical and sub-tropical distribution.These mushroomsare considered world famous as they are good to taste,pleasant,have a high protein content, and take less time to cultivate. Paddy mushrooms have several enzymes such as endo glucanase, polyphenol oxidase, laccase, xylanase, and beta-glucosidase which are helpful for its rapid growth[6-7].

The paddy straw mushroom was first cultivated in China in 1822 [8]. [9-10] began cultivating paddy mushrooms in India in 1940. Paddy mushrooms are grown from March to November in Peninsular India, and they are sown in the North Indian plains between July and September. Paddy mushrooms are cultivated in hilly locations between November and January. Except for V. volvacea, there are 19 edible Volvariella species that are grown [11].

Systematic position

Volvariella volvaceabelongs to the family Pluteaceae, order Agaricales, and division basidiomycota. The systematic position of paddy mushrooms has given below.

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota (Basidiomycetes)

Class: Agricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Pluteaceae

Genus: Volvariella

Species:volvacea

2.Morphological Characteristics

The paddy straw fungus is a big pileate mushroom with a grey cap when expanded fully. There are mainly four stages of growth with distinct morphological and anatomical characteristics, namely, “button”, “egg”, “elongation” and “mature” [12].

The mature mushroom consists of three parts: pileus, stipe, and volva. Volva, also known as the Universal vein, stays more or less apparent in the adult mushroom. Stipe is extended to a bulbous base, white to dull brown in color, long, spherical, with a smooth surface and no annulus. The pileus is an umbrella-like fleshy structure linked to the stipe. The pileus is approximately 5-15 cm wide, but it is typically altered by environmental conditions. Gills are vertical, radial plates on the pileus’s lower surface that act as lamella. All gills have an entire margin and fimbriate edges, although their sizes range from one-quarter the radius of the pileus to full size [13].

3. Cultivation of Volvariella volvaceae

• Requirement of Temperature and Moisture Growth

The optimum temperature required for the growth of paddy mushrooms is 35⁰C. About 57-60% moisture is required for the growth of paddy mushrooms[14].

• Fruiting, Harvesting and Storing

The fruiting body ofPaddy straw mushrooms takesup to 2 -3 daysto enlarge when it is found in clusters. The best way to store them is to harvest the fruiting bodies while they are still in the egg stage. Before cooking, paddy straw mushrooms are stored in a paper bag and kept in the fridge for few days[15-16].

• Methods of Cultivation

There are several ways to develop paddy straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), and each has its own procedures and needs. The Conventional Methodand Improved Cage cultivation method were followed by 17].The best placeto cultivate paddy straw mushroomsis in the shade created by trees or creepers, [18] cultivated the mushrooms indoors [19]followed the circular method [20]. Indigenous Chinese cultivation practicemethod was adopted at Green Poplar village, Ping Shan country, Hebei province, China[21].

• Harvesting

The paddy strawmushrooms are harvested at the “button” and “eggs” stagesbefore and just after the volva breaks.They quickly grow in high temperature and moisture. Harvesting should be done 2-3 times a day for optimal quality.The first flush lasts for  3 days and yields upto 70-90% and the second flush is smaller and contributes upto 10-30%.[21].

(v) Storage

Paddy Straw mushrooms are highly perishable and cannot be stored above 40⁰C as they undergo autolysis at that temperature.They can be stored at temperatures ranging from 10⁰C to 15⁰C and slightly longer at 20⁰C under atmosphere conditions[22].

(vi) Processing methods

Paddy straw mushrooms can be processed through various methods in such as canning, pickling and drying. The quality of canned products can be optimized through blanching, post–harvest storage and chemical treatment[23].

(vii) Transportation

Paddy straw mushrooms are transported from China to Hong Kong, Taiwan to Thailand

which were shipped in wooden cases with ice in two compartments and mushrooms in the

central compartment[24].

(viii) Drying Techniques

Paddy straw mushrooms can be dried in the sun,hot drying takes up to 24 hours at 30⁰C.The paddy straw mushroom began at 40⁰C, and started to increase for 8 hours[25].

(ix)Blanching and Pre-treatment of Paddy straw mushroom

Paddy straw mushrooms wereblanched in hot water for 3 to 4minutes which helps to retain colour during storage. Paddy straw mushrooms were treated with 0.1% of potassium metabisulfite, a combination of 0.05% of KMS, and 0.5% of citric acid [26].

(x)Management of Pests

Paddy mushrooms are highly susceptible to diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses and other pathogens. These diseases can impact mushroom yield, quality and profit of mushroom farms. Effective disease management is crucial to prevent disease outbreaks, reduce economic losses and promote sustainable cultivation practices[27].

4. Nutritional Values

Paddy straw mushrooms have large amounts of proteins, amino acids, crude fibers and ash. These mushrooms are used to treat diabetes, blood pressure and cancer patients[3] V. volvacea is a substantial source of plant-based protein, with 14–27% crude protein on a dry weight basis. All of the necessary amino acids are included, including methionine, valine, leucine, lysine, and tryptophan. It has a stronger umami flavour because to the high levels of aspartic and glutamic acids.Volvarin is a ribosome-inactivating protein thatis obtained from paddy straw mushrooms.Approximately 56.8% of its dry matter is made up of carbohydrates, which also include polysaccharides like chitin and β-glucans that make up some of its dietary fiber. The dry weight of fats percentage is 5.7%. The lipids are mostly unsaturated fatty acids, which are good for your health.Fatty acids found in V. volvaceae have a high amount of unsaturated fatty acids.Fibers help with digestion and support gut health. Dietary fiber content varies from 3% to 32%.Micronutrients such as vital minerals, including iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca).  These minerals promote a number of physiological processes, including enzyme activity and bone health. Vitamins: Contains B-complex vitamins (riboflavin, thiamine, and biotin) and water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin C (20–62 mg/100 g dry weight).  Additionally, fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K are found in it.  The mushroom’s ergosterol acts as a precursor to vitaminsHealth benefits are found in V. volvacea serves as: A plant-based alternative to animal proteins. A functional food with therapeutic benefits such as anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. A natural flavour enhancer due to its high glutamic acid content[27].

• Medicinal applications

Volvariella volvacea have important therapeutic benefits. Their bioactive components are valuable complement to both dietsand pharmaceutical applications.The various bioactive substances present in paddy straw mushrooms highlight their potential as functional meals with substantial health advantages.Volvariellavolvaceacontains flavonoids and phenolic compounds have highest hydrogen donating capacity to scavenge DPPH (2,2 diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl)radical [14,15, 16]. [22] performed research on rats to show the antidiabetic activity of paddy straw. It was used to determine the antidiabetic activity of V.volvaceaby exploring the glucose test tolerance[14,18].Cardio toxic proteins such as flammutoxin and volvatoxin which are extracted from Volvariella volvaceainhibit the respiration in tumor cells. Pyrazine is a heterocycliccompound whichispresent in Volvariella volvaceapossess anti-cancerous properties.Anti-inflammatorymolecules present in the extract of V.volvaceaare Interleukin-8,tumor necrosis factor(TNF-α),Interleukin -1β, and Interleukin -8 showed neutrophil activity as a host cell defense mechanism. [14,19,20].

Volvariellavolvacea contains phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and other bioactive molecules that support its anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties, providing therapeutic advantages for a range of inflammatory disorders.[14]reported antimicrobial activity of V.volvacea inhibited the growth of bacteria such as   Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, andStreptococcus pyogenes. Heterocyclic compound 2-Pyrroliodones present in Volvariella volvacea have antifungal and antimicrobial properties. [22,14, 23].Compoundspresent in Volvariella volvacea exhibit Cardioprotective activity. Methanolic extracts of V. volvaceashowed the presence of cardiac glycoside which is clinically used as a heart strengthening drug[24,25, 14].

6.Advantages and Disadvantages of Paddy straw mushrooms

1. The cultivation of paddy straw mushrooms is a simple technique.
2. The specific infrastructure is not required.
3. Cost of cultivation is very low.
4. The yield of paddy mushrooms is low. The dry weight of the substrate is 10-15% of dry weight.
5. It is not suitable for semi-industrialised or industrialised scale cultivation.
6. Paddy straw can be cultivated outdoors or indoors(in hut to the pucca house).
7. The minimum cost of cultivation is approximately Rs 20-22/bed.

• Conclusion

Volvariella volvacea (Paddy straw mushrooms) are a valuable and sustainable crop with numerous benefits in terms of nutrition, economic potential, and waste management. Their easy cultivation and economic potential make them valuable, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. Their cultivation provides an opportunity to utilize agricultural waste and environmental sustainability. Though there are challenges in cultivation, ongoing research, and improved farming techniques continue to enhance production efficiency and quality.Therefore, Paddy straw mushrooms hold significant promise for food security, medicinal applications, and rural development.

REFERENCES

• Eguchi, F., Kalaw, S. P., Dulay, R. M. R., Miyasawa, N., Yoshimoto, H., Seyama, T., & Reyes, R. G. (2015). Nutrient composition and functional activity of different stages in the fruiting body development of Philippine paddy straw mushroom, Volvariella volvacea (Bull.: Fr.) Sing. Advances in Environmental Biology, 9(22 S3), 54-66.
• Sevindik, M., Bal, C., Eraslan, E. C., Uysal, I., & Mohammed, F. S. (2023). Medicinal mushrooms: a comprehensive study on their antiviral potential. Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences, 21(2), 42-56.
• Abdelshafy, A. M., Belwal, T., Liang, Z., Wang, L., Li, D., Luo, Z., & Li, L. (2022). A comprehensive review on phenolic compounds from edible mushrooms: Occurrence, biological activity, application and future prospective. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62(22), 6204-6224.
• Kumar, K., Mehra, R., Guiné, R. P., Lima, M. J., Kumar, N., Kaushik, R., & Kumar, H. (2021). Edible mushrooms: A comprehensive review on bioactive compounds with health benefits and processing aspects. Foods, 10(12), 2996.
• Bao, D., Gong, M., Zheng, H., Chen, M., Zhang, L., Wang, H., & Tan, Q. (2013). Sequencing and comparative analysis of the straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) genome. PloS one, 8(3), e58294.
• Yan, M. Q., Feng, J., Liu, Y. F., Hu, D. M., & Zhang, J. S. (2023). Functional components from the liquid fermentation of edible and medicinal Fungi and their food applications in China. Foods, 12(10), 2086.
• Li, H., He, Z., Jiang, Y., Kan, J., Peng, T., Zhong, M., & Hu, Z. (2021). Bioconversion of bamboo shoot shells through the cultivation of the edible mushrooms Volvariella volvacea. Ecotoxicology, 30, 1476-1486.
• Wang, Q., Wang, J., Li, M., Liu, Y., & Gao, L. (2024). Structural characterization and anti-oxidant activity of polysaccharide HVP-1 from Volvariella volvacea. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 261, 129672.
• Kang, J., Yue, Y., Wei, S., Chen, H., & Luo, P. (2024). Superior component compositions and antioxidant activity of Volvariella volvacea oil compared to those of Agrocybecylindracea and two Lentinula edodes oils. Food Science & Nutrition, 12(1), 268-279.
• El-Ramady, H., Abdalla, N., Badgar, K., Llanaj, X., Törős, G., Hajdú, P., &Prokisch, J. (2022). Edible mushrooms for sustainable and healthy human food: nutritional and medicinal attributes. Sustainability, 14(9), 4941.
• Khaskheli, S. G., Liu, Y., Khaskheli, A. A., & Dong, X. (2024). Unveiling the medicinal potential of edible mushroom polysaccharides: Structure, function, and therapeutic insights. Food Biomacromolecules, 1(2), 45-57.
• Chopra, H., Mishra, A. K., Baig, A. A., Mohanta, T. K., Mohanta, Y. K., & Baek, K. H. (2021). Narrative review: Bioactive potential of various mushrooms as the treasure of versatile therapeutic natural product. Journal of Fungi, 7(9), 728.
• Hayat, Syed Adil, Tabassum Yaseen, Banzeer Ahsan Abbasi, Javed Iqbal, Shumaila Ijaz, Salma Noreen, Mohamed Mohany, Salim S. Al-Rejaie, SaltanatAghayeva, and Rashid Iqbal. “Ethnobotanical diversity, phytochemical screening and biological evaluation of selected medicinal mushrooms species.” Journal of King Saud University-Science 36, no. 9 (2024): 103428.
• Du, X., Li, M., Liu, Y., Gao, L., & Wang, J. (2025). Structural characterization and protective effect against oxidative stress of Volvariella volvacea polysaccharide. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 285, 138202.
• Rahi, D. K., & Malik, D. (2016). Diversity of mushrooms and their metabolites of nutraceutical and therapeutic significance. Journal of Mycology, 2016(1), 7654123.
• Medihi, N. I., Haiyee, Z. A., Sukor, R., &Raseetha, S. (2024). Exploring the functional properties and nutritional values of colored oyster mushrooms species (Pleurotus, Agaricomycetes): a review. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, 26(6).
• Devi, Y. A., Raj, S., & Saurabh, S. (2024). Comprehensive insights on medicinal and nutritional prospects of mushroom as sustainable super food. Int J Res Agron, 7(9), 681-690.
• Medihi, N. I., Haiyee, Z. A., Patmawati, P., Rashidah, S., & Siva, R. Exploring the Functional Properties and Nutritional Values of Coloured Oyster Mushrooms Species of Genus Pleurotus (Agaricomycetes): A Review. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms.
• Eze, E. I., Agbo, C. U., Chukwudi, U. P., &Umeh, B. U. (2024). Nutritional, phytochemical and therapeutic attributes of edible wild mushrooms as influenced by substrates in humid tropical environment. Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, 8(7), 7770-7777.
• Wang, Q., Wang, W., Wang, Y., Yun, J., Zhang, Y., & Zhao, F. (2024). Exogenous MnSO4 Improves Productivity of Degenerated Volvariella volvacea by Regulating Antioxidant Activity. Journal of Fungi, 10(12), 825.
• Guo, Q., Liang, S., Xiao, Z., & Ge, C. (2023). Research progress on extraction technology and biological activity of polysaccharides from Edible Fungi: A review. Food Reviews International, 39(8), 4909-4940.
• Usman, M., Murtaza, G., &Ditta, A. (2021). Nutritional, medicinal, and cosmetic value of bioactive compounds in button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus): a review. Applied Sciences, 11(13), 5943.
• Feng, L., Wang, L., Lei, Y., Li, J., & Zhao, F. (2024). Molecular Mechanism During Mycelium Subculture Degeneration of Volvariella volvacea. Journal of Fungi, 11(1), 7.
• Munir, N., Ramli, A. N. M., Norsazali, N. F. S., &Bhuyar, P. (2024). Valorization of agro-industrial waste for the advancement of mushrooms and their production yield. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 14(20), 26415-26426.
• Liu, Y., Hu, H., Cai, M., Liang, X., Wu, X., Wang, A., & Xie, Y. (2022). Whole genome sequencing of an edible and medicinal mushroom, Russulagriseocarnosa, and its association with mycorrhizal characteristics. Gene, 808, 145996.
• Jiang, C., Duan, X., Lin, L., Wu, W., Li, X., Zeng, Z., & Liu, Y. (2023). A review on the edible mushroom as a source of special flavor: Flavor categories, influencing factors, and challenges. Food Frontiers, 4(4), 1561-1577.
• Fernandes, T., Garrine, C., Ferrão, J., Bell, V., &Varzakas, T. (2021). Mushroom nutrition as preventative healthcare in Sub-Saharan Africa. Applied Sciences, 11(9), 4221.